Talk:Buddhism/Revised

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Buddhism is a world religion and philosophy with between 230 and 500 million adherents worldwide, mostly in Asia.^[1] It is based on the teachings of Gautama Buddha, sometimes known simply as "the Buddha", who lived during the fifth century BCE in ancient India, in parts of what is now Nepal and the Indian states of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar located in the northeastern region of the Indian subcontinent.

Buddhism spread in two main branches; Theravada, which extended south and east and now has a widespread following in Southeast Asia, and Mahayana, which diffused first west, then north and later east throughout East Asia. Buddhist schools disagree over the Buddha's teachings, known as the Dharma, their interpretation and various practices. The Tipitaka, a Buddhist holy book, does not include the Mahayana sutras, documents that are central to the Mayahana branch but irrelevant to the Theravada tradition.

All traditions recognize the Gautama Buddha as an enlightened teacher who shared his insights in order to help sentient beings end their suffering in accordance with the laws of Karma, by realizing the true nature of phenomena and thereby escaping the cycle of involuntary rebirths known to Buddhists as samsara. Among the methods Buddhist schools apply towards that goal are ethical conduct, altruistic behaviour, renunciation of worldly matters, the training of one's mind through learning and meditation, devotional practices and the invocation of holy beings to seek their help in achieving Enlightenment. A Buddhist is one who takes refuge in The Three Jewels: Buddha; The Enlightened or Awakened One, Dharma; The Teaching (of Buddha), and Sangha; The Community (of Buddhists).

[edit] Gautama Buddha

Main article: Gautama Buddha

Siddhartha Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, was born in the city of Lumbini^[2] and was raised in Kapilavastu.^[3] According to the Tipitaka he was born as a prince. Shortly after his birth a wise man visited his father, King Suddhodana. The wise man said that Siddhartha would either become a great king (chakravartin) or a holy man (Sadhu) based on whether he saw life outside of the palace walls. Determined to make Siddhartha a king, Suddhodana shielded his son from the unpleasant realities of daily life.

Despite his father's efforts, at the age of 29, he discovered the suffering of his people, first through an encounter with an elderly man. On subsequent trips outside the palace, he encountered a diseased man, a decaying corpse, an old man and an ascetic. These are known among Buddhists as The Four Sights.^[4] This was one of the first contemplations of Siddharta. Years after this, he married Yasodhara, with whom he had a son.

Partly because of The Four Sights experience, Gautama one day sought to be free from suffering by living the life of a mendicant ascetic, a highly respected spiritual practice at the time in ancient India. He left the palace, abandoning royal life to take up his spiritual quest. After practising various forms of meditation, including dhyÄna, he concluded that ascetic practices, such as fasting, holding one's breath, and exposure to pain brought little spiritual benefit. He viewed them as counterproductive due to their reliance on self hatred and mortification.^[5]

He abandoned asceticism, concentrating instead on anapanasati meditation (awareness of breathing), thus discovering what Buddhists call the Middle Way, a path of moderation that lies mid-way between the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification. After almost starving to death, he accepted a little milk and rice from a village girl. After this, he sat under a pipal tree or Sacred fig (Ficus religiosa), also known as the Bodhi tree, in Bodh Gaya^[6][7] and vowed not to rise before achieving Nirvana. At age 35, after many days of meditating, he attained Nirvana (also known as "Awakening" or "Enlightenment" in the West), becoming a Buddha. After attaining Nirvana he was known as Gautama Buddha and spent the rest of his life teaching the Dharma.^[8] He died at age 80 in Kushinagara (Pali: Kusinara) (India).^[9]

[edit] Important Concepts

Not all traditions of Buddhism share the same philosophical outlook, or treat the same concepts as central. Each tradition, however, does have its own core concepts, and some comparisons can be drawn between them.

Mahayana Buddhism shows a great deal of doctrinal variation and development over time, and even more variation in terms of practice. While there is much agreement on general principles, there is disagreement over which texts are more authoritative.

[edit] Karma and rebirth

Rebirth has no discernible beginning, and takes place in a variety of types of life, later formally classified as the Five or Six Realms.^{[clarification needed]}

The karma of good and bad deeds produces "rewards" and "punishments" either in this life or in a subsequent one. These may be either rebirths themselves or events therein. The content of bad deeds and the lower types of good deeds belongs to the subject of Sila or conduct. Higher rebirths can be attained by the practice of forms of meditation later classified as samatha or samadhi.^{[clarification needed]}

Many Buddhists believe that there is no otherworldly salvation from one's karma. The suffering caused by the karmic effects of previous thoughts, words and deeds can be alleviated by following the Noble Eightfold Path, although the Buddha of some Mahayana sutras, such as the Lotus Sutra, the Angulimaliya Sutra and the Nirvana Sutra, also teaches that powerful sutras such as the above-named can, through the very act of their being heard or recited, wholly expunge great swathes of negative karma.

[edit] The Four Noble Truths

Main article: The Four Noble Truths

According to the scriptures, the Four Noble Truths were taught by the Buddha in his first sermon after reaching Enlightenment.^[10] They are often considered as containing the essence of the teachings of the Buddha and are presented in the the manner of a medical diagnosis and remedial prescription in a style that was common at the Buddha´s time.

They are:^[11]

The Four Noble Truths present a formulation of the Buddha´s understanding of the nature of dukkha, or "suffering"^[12] , the fundamental cause of all suffering, the escape from suffering, and what effort a person can go to so that they themselves can "attain happiness."^[13]. Roughly put, and on a very basic level of understanding, they state that, firstly, life as we know it ultimately is or leads to "suffering" in one way or the other. That, secondly, the cause of this "suffering" is attachment to, or craving for worldly pleasures of all kinds and clinging to this very existence, our "self" and the things or people we - due to our delusions - deem the cause of our respective happiness or unhappiness. That, thirdly, the "suffering" ends when the craving ends, one is freed from all desires by eliminating the delusions, reaches "Enlightenment"; and that, fourthly, the way to reach that liberated state is by following the path the Buddha has layed out.

The above interpretation is followed closely by many modern Theravadins, described by early westerns scholars and taught as an introduction to Buddhism by many contemporary buddhist teachers like the Dalai Lama.^[14] According to other interpretations by buddhist teachers and scholars and lately recognized by some western scholars as well^[15] the "truths" do not represent mere statements, but "things". According to that view, they present a perfect division of all phenomena as falling into one of these four categories: true sufferings and true causes are the effect and cause on the side of suffering; true cessations and true paths are the effect and cause on the side of liberation.

The early teaching^[16] and the traditional understanding in the Theravada^[17] is that the four noble truths are an advanced teaching for those who are ready for them. The Mahayana position is that they are a preliminary teaching for people not yet ready for the higher and more expansive Mahayana teachings.^[18] They are little known in the Far East.^[19]

[edit] The Noble Eightfold Path and the middle way

Main article: Noble Eightfold Path

The Noble Eightfold Path is the way to the cessation of suffering, the fourth part of the Four Noble Truths. In the early sources (the four main Nikayas) it is not generally taught to laymen, and it is little known in the Far East.^[20] This is divided into three sections: Śīla (which concerns wholesome physical actions), Samadhi (which concerns the meditative concentration of the mind) and PrajÃ±Ä (which concerns spiritual insight into the true nature of all things).

Śīla is morality—abstaining from unwholesome deeds of body and speech. Within the division of sila are three parts of the Noble Eightfold Path:

Samadhi is developing mastery over one’s own mind. Within this division are another three parts of the Noble Eightfold Path:

PrajÃ±Ä is the wisdom which purifies the mind. Within this division fall two more parts of the Noble Eightfold Path:

The word samyak means "perfect". There are a number of ways to interpret the Eightfold Path. On one hand, the Eightfold Path is spoken of as being a progressive series of stages through which the practitioner moves, the culmination of one leading to the beginning of another, whereas others see the states of the 'Path' as requiring simultaneous development. It is also common to categorize the Eightfold Path into prajÃ±Ä (PÄli paññÄ, wisdom), śīla (PÄli sÄ«la, virtuous behavior) and samÄdhi (concentration).

Main article: Middle Way

An important guiding principle of Buddhist practice is the Middle Way which was said to have been discovered by the Buddha prior to his enlightenment (bodhi). The Middle Way or Middle Path has several definitions:

TheravÄda promotes the concept of Vibhajjavada (Pali), literally "Teaching of Analysis". This doctrine says that insight must come from the aspirant's experience, critical investigation, and reasoning instead of by blind faith.

In TheravÄda Buddhism, the cause of human existence and suffering is identified as the craving, which carried with it the various defilements. These various defilements are traditionally summed up as greed, hatred and delusion. These defilements are believed to be parasites that have infested the mind and creates suffering and stress. It is believed that in order to be free from suffering and stress these defilements need to be permanently uprooted through internal investigation, analyzing, experiencing, and understanding the true nature of those defilements by using jhana, a technique which is part of the Noble Eightfold Path. It will then lead the meditator to realize the Four Noble Truths, Enlightenment and Nibbana. Nibbana is the ultimate goals of Theravadin.

[edit] Ideas on ultimate reality

Main article: Reality in Buddhism

According to the scriptures, in his lifetime, the Buddha refused to answer several metaphysical questions. On issues such as whether the world is eternal or non-eternal, finite or infinite, unity or separation of the body and the self, complete inexistence of a person after nirvana and then death etc, the Buddha had remained silent. One explanation for this is that such questions distract from practical activity for realizing enlightenment.^[22] Another is that such questions assume the reality of world/self/person.

In the Pali Canon and numerous Mahayana sutras and Tantras, the Buddha stresses that Dharma (Truth) cannot truly be understood with the ordinary rational mind or logic: Reality transcends all worldly concepts. In the Mahayana tradition, what is urged is study, mental and moral self-cultivation, faith in and veneration of the sutras, which are as fingers pointing to the moon of Truth, but then to let go of ratiocination and to experience direct entry into Liberation itself. In the Theravada tradition, the practitioner only need to practice the Noble Eightfold Path in order to gain direct insight into the ultimate reality.

In the Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra, the Buddha in the self-styled "Uttara-Tantra", insists that, while pondering upon Dharma is vital, one must then relinquish fixation on words and letters, as these are utterly divorced from Liberation and the Buddha. The Tantra entitled the "All-Creating King" (Kunjed Gyalpo Tantra, a scripture of the Nyingma school of Tibetan Buddhism) also emphasises how Buddhist Truth lies beyond the range of thought and is ultimately mysterious. The Supreme Buddha, Samantabhadra, states there: "The mind of perfect purity ... is beyond thinking and inexplicable ...."^[23] Also later, the famous Indian Buddhist yogi and teacher mahasiddha Tilopa discouraged any intellectual activity in his 6 words of advice.

Most Buddhists agree that, to a greater or lesser extent, words are inadequate to describe the goal; schools differ radically on the usefulness of words in the path to that goal.^[24]

Buddhist scholars have produced a prodigious quantity of intellectual theories, philosophies and world view concepts. See e.g. Abhidharma, Buddhist philosophy and Reality in Buddhism. Some schools of Buddhism discourage doctrinal study, but most regard it as having a place, at least for some people at some stages.

Mahayana often adopts a pragmatic concept of truth:^[25] doctrines are "true" in the sense of being spiritually beneficial. In modern Chinese Buddhism, all doctrinal traditions are regarded as equally valid.^[26]

MahÄyÄna Buddhism received significant theoretical grounding from NÄgÄrjuna (perhaps c.150–250 CE), arguably the most influential scholar within the MahÄyÄna tradition. Some of the writings attributed to him made explicit references to MahÄyÄna texts, but his philosophy was argued within the parameters set out by the Tripiá¹­aka sÅ«tras. NÄgÄrjuna asserted that the nature of the dharmas (hence the enlightenment) to be śūnya (void or empty), bringing together other key Buddhist doctrines, particularly anÄtman (no-self) and pratÄ«tyasamutpÄda (dependent origination). His school of thought is known as the Madhyamaka.

SarvÄstivÄda teaching, which was criticized by NÄgÄrjuna, was reformulated by scholars such as Vasubandhu and Asaá¹…ga and were adapted into the YogÄcÄra (Sanskrit: yoga practice) school. While the Madhyamaka school asserted that there is no ultimately real thing, the YogÄcÄra school asserts that only the mind is ultimately existent. These two schools of thought, in opposition or synthesis, form the basis of subsequent MahÄyÄna theology in the Indo-Tibetan tradition.

In the Mahayana school, emphasis is also often placed on the notions of Emptiness (shunyata), perfected spiritual insight (prajnaparamita) and Buddha-nature (the deathless tathagatagarbha, or Buddhic Essence, inherent in all beings and creatures). The teaching of the tathagatagarbha is said by the Buddha in the tathagatagarbha sutras to constitute the "absolutely final culmination" of his Dharma—the highest presentation of Truth (other sūtras make similar statements about other teachings). This has traditionally been regarded as the highest teaching in East Asian Buddhism. However, in modern China all doctrines are regarded as equally valid.^[27] The Mahayana can also on occasion communicate a vision of the Buddha or Dharma which amounts to mysticism and gives expression to a form of mentalist panentheism (God in Buddhism).

[edit] Enlightenment and enlightened beings

All traditional Buddhists agree that Shakyamuni or Gotama Buddha was not the only Buddha: it is generally taught that there have been many past Buddhas and that there will be future Buddhas too.

Mahayana Buddhism generally regards as its most important teaching the path of the bodhisattva. This already existed as a possibility in earlier Buddhism, as it still does in Theravada today, but the Mahayana gave it an increasing emphasis, eventually saying everyone should follow it.

In the Mahayana, the Buddha tends not to be viewed as merely human, but as the earthly projection of a beginningless and endless, omnipresent being (see Dharmakaya) beyond the range and reach of thought. Moreover, in certain Mahayana sutras, the Buddha, Dharma and Sangha are viewed essentially as One: all three are seen as the eternal Buddha himself.

Main article: Bodhi

Bodhi (PÄli and Sanskrit (बॊधि), lit. awakening) is a term applied to the experience of Awakening of Arahants. Bodhi literally means "awakening", but is more commonly referred to as "enlightenment".

[edit] Early Buddhism

Bodhi carries a meaning synonymous to Nirvana, using only some different similies to describe the experience, which implied the extinction of raga (greed),^[28] dosa (hate)^[29] and moha (delusion).^[30]

[edit] Theravada

A person may awaken from the "sleep of ignorance" by directly realizing the true nature of reality; such people are called arahants. After numerous lifetimes of spiritual striving they have also reached the end of the compulsive cycle of rebirths, no longer reincarnating as human, animal, ghost, or other being. These people, also occasionally referred to as buddhas, are classified into three types.

Bodhi and Nirvana carry the same meaning, that of being freed from craving, hate and delusion. The arahant, according to Theravada doctrine, has thus overcome greed, hatred, and delusion, attaining Bodhi. In Theravada Buddhism, the extinction of only greed (in relation to the sense sphere) and hatred, while a residue of delusion remains, is called Anagami.

[edit] Mahayana

Celestial Buddhas are individuals who no longer exist on the material plane of existence, but who still aid in the enlightenment of all beings.

Nirvana came to refer only to the extinction of greed and hate, implying that delusion was still present in one who attained Nirvana. Bodhi became a higher attainment that eradicate delusion entirely.^[31] Thus, the Arahant attains Nirvana but not Bodhi, thus still being subject to delusion, while the Buddha attains Bodhi.

The method of self-exertion or "self-power" - without reliance on an external force or being - stands in contrast to another major form of Buddhism, "Pure Land", which is characterised by utmost trust in the salvific "other-power" of Amida Buddha. Pure Land Buddhism is a very widespread and perhaps the most faith-orientated manifestation of Buddhism and centres upon the conviction that faith in Amitabha Buddha and/or the chanting of homage to his name will provide the spiritual energy that will liberate one at death into the "happy land" (sukhavati) or "pure land" of Amitabha (called Amida in Japanese) Buddha . This Buddhic realm is variously construed as a foretaste of Nirvana, or as essentially Nirvana itself. The great vow of Amitabha Buddha to rescue all beings from samsaric suffering is viewed within Pure Land Buddhism as universally efficacious, if only people will have faith in the power of that limitless great Vow, or will utter the liberational chant of Amida's name.

Nearly all Chinese Buddhists accept that the chances of attaining sufficient enlightenment by one's own efforts are very slim, so that Pure Land practice is essential as an "insurance policy" even if one practises something else.^[32]

[edit] Practice

[edit] Devotion

Main article: [[Buddhist devotion|Buddhist devotion]]

[edit] Refuge in the Three Jewels

Main articles: Refuge (Buddhism) and Three Jewels

Traditionally, the first step in most forms of Buddhism requires taking refuge, as the foundation of one's religious practice, in Buddhism's Three Jewels (Sanskrit: तà¥à¤°à¤¿à¤°à¤¤à¥à¤¨ Triratna or रतà¥à¤¨à¤¤à¥à¤°à¤¯ Ratna-traya, Pali: Tiratana).^[33] The practice of taking refuge on behalf of young or even unborn children is mentioned^[34] in the Majjhima Nikaya, recognized by most scholars as an early text (cf Infant baptism). Tibetan Buddhism sometimes adds a fourth refuge, in the lama. The person who chooses the bodhisattva path makes a vow/pledge. This is considered the ultimate expression of compassion in Buddhism.

The Three Jewels are:

According to the scriptures, The Buddha presented himself as a model, however, he did not ask his followers simply to have faith (Sanskrit शà¥à¤°à¤¦à¥à¤§à¤¾ Å›raddhÄ, PÄli saddhÄ) in his example of a human who escaped the pain and danger of existence. In addition, he encouraged them to put his teachings to the test and accept what they could verify on their own, provided that this was also "praised by the wise" (see Kalama Sutta). The Dharma, i.e. the teaching of the Buddha, offers a refuge by providing guidelines for the alleviation of suffering and the attainment of enlightenment. The Saá¹…gha (Buddhist Order of monks) is considered to provide a refuge by preserving the authentic teachings of the Buddha and providing further examples that the truth of the Buddha's teachings is attainable.

[edit] Morality

Main articles: Sila, The Five Precepts, The Eight Precepts, and Patimokkha

Śīla (Sanskrit) or sÄ«la (PÄli) is usually translated into English as "virtuous behavior", "morality", "ethics" or "precept". It is an action committed through the body, speech, or mind, and involves an intentional effort. It is one of the three practices (sila, samadhi, and panya) and the second pÄramitÄ. It refers to moral purity of thought, word, and deed. The four conditions of śīla are chastity, calmness, quiet, and extinguishment.

Śīla is the foundation of Samadhi/BhÄvana (Meditative cultivation) or mind cultivation. Keeping the precepts promotes not only the peace of mind of the cultivator, which is internally, but also peace in the community, which is externally. According to the Law of Kamma, keeping the precepts are meritorious and it acts as causes which would bring about peaceful and happy effects. Keeping these precepts keeps the cultivator from rebirth in the four woeful realms of existence.

Śīla refers to overall (principles of) ethical behavior. There are several levels of sila, which correspond to 'basic morality' (five precepts), 'basic morality with asceticism' (eight precepts), 'novice monkhood' (ten precepts) and 'monkhood' (Vinaya or Patimokkha). Lay people generally undertake to live by the five precepts which are common to all Buddhist schools. If they wish, they can choose to undertake the eight precepts, which have some additional precepts of basic asceticism.

The five precepts are not given in the form of commands such as "thou shalt not ...", but are training rules in order to live a better life in which one is happy, without worries, and can meditate well.

1. To refrain from taking life. (non-violence towards sentient life forms)

2. To refrain from taking that which is not given. (not committing theft)

3. To refrain from sensual (sexual) misconduct.

4. To refrain from lying. (speaking truth always)

5. To refrain from intoxicants which lead to loss of mindfulness. (refrain from using drugs or alcohol)

In the eight precepts, the third precept on sexual misconduct is made more strict, and becomes a precept of celibacy.

The three additional rules of the eight precepts are:

6. To refrain from eating at the wrong time. (only eat from sunrise to noon)

7. To refrain from dancing, using jewelry, going to shows, etc.

8. To refrain from using a high, luxurious bed.

[edit] Monastic life

Vinaya is the specific moral code for monks and nuns. It includes the Patimokkha, a set of 227 rules for monks in the Theravadin recension. The precise content of the vinayapitaka (scriptures on Vinaya) differ slightly according to different schools, and different schools or subschools set different standards for the degree of adherence to Vinaya. Novice-monks use the ten precepts, which are the basic precepts for monastics.

In Eastern Buddhism, there is also a distinctive Vinaya and ethics contained within the Mahayana Brahmajala Sutra (not to be confused with the Pali text of that name) for Bodhisattvas, where, for example, the eating of meat is frowned upon and vegetarianism is actively encouraged (see vegetarianism in Buddhism). In Japan, this has almost completely displaced the monastic vinaya, and allows clergy to marry.

[edit] Meditation

[edit] SamÄdhi/BhÄvanÄ (Meditative cultivation)

Main articles: Samadhi, Vipassana, and Buddhist meditation

In the language of the Noble Eightfold Path, samyaksamÄdhi is "right concentration". The primary means of cultivating samÄdhi is meditation. According to Theravada Buddhism the Buddha taught two types of meditation, viz. samatha meditation (Sanskrit: Å›amatha) and vipassanÄ meditation (Sanskrit: vipaÅ›yanÄ). In Chinese Buddhism, these exist (translated chih kuan), but Chan (Zen) meditation is more popular.^[35] Throughout most of Buddhist history before modern times, serious meditation by lay people has been unusual.^[36] Upon development of samÄdhi, one's mind becomes purified of defilement, calm, tranquil, and luminous.

Once the meditator achieves a strong and powerful concentration (jhÄna, Sanskrit धà¥à¤¯à¤¾à¤¨ dhyÄna), his mind is ready to penetrate and gain insight (vipassanÄ) into the ultimate nature of reality, eventually obtaining release from all suffering. The cultivation of mindfulness is essential to mental concentration, which is needed to achieve insight.

Samatha Meditation starts from being mindful of an object or idea, which is expanded to one's body, mind and entire surroundings, leading to a state of total concentration and tranquility (jhÄna) There are many variations in the style of meditation, from sitting cross-legged or kneeling to chanting or walking. The most common method of meditation is to concentrate on one's breath, because this practice can lead to both samatha and vipassana.

In Buddhist practice, it is said that while samatha meditation can calm the mind, only vipassanÄ meditation can reveal how the mind was disturbed to start with, which is what leads to jñÄna (PÄli ñÄṇa knowledge), prajÃ±Ä (PÄli paÃ±Ã±Ä pure understanding) and thus can lead to nirvÄṇa (PÄli nibbÄna). When one is in jñÄna, all defilements are suppressed temporarily. Only prajÃ±Ä or vipassana eradicates the defilements completely. Jhanas are also resting states which arahants abide in order to rest.

[edit] PrajÃ±Ä (Wisdom)

Main article: PrajñÄ

PrajÃ±Ä (Sanskrit) or paÃ±Ã±Ä (PÄli) means wisdom that is based on a realization of dependent origination, The Four Noble Truths and the three marks of existence. PrajÃ±Ä is the wisdom that is able to extinguish afflictions and bring about bodhi. It is spoken of as the principal means, by its enlightenment, of attaining nirvÄṇa, through its revelation of the true nature of all things as dukkha (unsatisfactory), anicca (impermanence) and anatta (devoid of self). PrajÃ±Ä is also listed as the sixth of the six pÄramitÄs of the Mahayana.

Initially, prajÃ±Ä is attained at a conceptual level by means of listening to sermons (dharma talks), reading, studying and sometimes reciting Buddhist texts and engaging in discourse.

Once the conceptual understanding is attained, it is applied to daily life so that each Buddhist can verify the truth of the Buddha's teaching at a practical level. It should be noted that one could theoretically attain nirvana at any point of practice, while listening to a sermon, while conducting business of daily life or while in meditation.

[edit] Zen

Main article: Zen

Ch'an (Chinese) or Zen (Japanese) Buddhism (whose name is derived from the Sanskrit term, dhyana - "meditation") is a form of Buddhism that became popular in China and Japan and that lays special emphasis on meditation. According to Charles S. Prebish (in his Historical Dictionary of Buddhism, Sri Satguru Publications, Delhi, 1993, p. 287): "Although a variety of Zen 'schools' developed in Japan, they all emphasize Zen as a teaching that does not depend on sacred texts, that provides the potential for direct realization, that the realization attained is none other than the Buddha nature possessed by each sentient being ...". Zen places less emphasis on scriptures than some other forms of Buddhism and prefers to focus on direct spiritual breakthroughs to truth.

Zen Buddhism is divided into two main schools: Rinzai and Soto, the former greatly favouring the use in meditation of the koan (meditative riddle or puzzle) as a device for spiritual break-through, and the latter (while certainly employing koans) focussing more on shikantaza or "just sitting". Prebish comments (op. cit., p. 244): "It presumes that sitting in meditation itself (i.e. zazen) is an expression of Buddha nature." The method is to detach the mind from conceptual modes of thinking and perceive Reality directly. Speaking of Zen in general, Buddhist scholar Stephen Hodge writes (Zen Masterclass, Godsfield Press, 2002, pp. 12–13): "... practitioners of Zen believe that Enlightenment, the awakening of the Buddha-mind or Buddha-nature, is our natural state, but has been covered over by layers of negative emotions and distorted thoughts. According to this view, Enlightenment is not something that we must acquire a bit at a time, but a state that can occur instantly when we cut through the dense veil of mental and emotional obscurations."

Zen Buddhist teaching is often full of paradox, in order to loosen the grip of the ego and to facilitate the penetration into the realm of the True Self or Formless Self, which is equated with the Buddha himself (Critical Sermons on the Zen Tradition, Hisamatsu Shin'ichi, Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2002, passim). Commenting on Rinzai Zen and its Chinese founder, Linji, Hisamatsu states: "Linji indicates our true way of being in such direct expressions as 'True Person' and 'True Self'. It is independent of words or letters and transmitted apart from scriptural teaching. Buddhism doesn't really need scriptures. It is just our direct awakening to Self ..." (Hisamatsu, op. cit., p. 46). Nevertheless, Zen does not neglect the scriptures.^[37]

[edit] Tantra

Though thoroughly based upon MahÄyÄna, Tibeto-Mongolian Buddhism is also one of the schools that practice VajrayÄna or "Diamond Vehicle" (also referred to as MantrayÄna, TantrayÄna, Tantric Buddhism, or esoteric Buddhism). It accepts all the basic concepts of MahÄyÄna, but also includes an array of spiritual and physical techniques designed to enhance Buddhist practice. One component of the VajrayÄna is harnessing psycho-physical energy as a means of developing profoundly powerful states of concentration and awareness. These profound states are in turn to be used as an efficient path to Buddhahood. Using these techniques, it is claimed that a practitioner can achieve Buddhahood in one lifetime, or even as little as three years.

[edit] Main traditions

Scholars usually categorize Buddhist schools by the ancient languages of surviving Buddhist religious scripture. These are the PÄli, Tibetan, Mongolian and Chinese collections, along with some texts that still exist in Sanskrit and Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit. While practical, this method doesn't always correspond to doctrinal divisions. Despite these differences, there are several concepts common to both major Buddhist branches:^[38]

[edit] History

[edit] Indian Buddhism

[edit] Early Buddhism

Main articles: History of Buddhism and History of Buddhism in India

The history of Indian Buddhism may be divided into the following five periods:^[39]

These developments were not always consecutive. For example, the early schools continued to exist alongside Mahayana. Some scholars have argued that Mahayana remained marginal for centuries.

The term Early Buddhism can be applied to both Pre-sectarian Buddhism and the Buddhism of the Early Buddhist Schools.

Main articles: Pre-sectarian Buddhism and Early Buddhist schools

[edit] Sutta Pitaka and Vinaya Pitaka

The earliest phase of Buddhism (pre-sectarian Buddhism) recognized by nearly all scholars (the main exception is Dr Gregory Schopen,^[41]) is based on a comparison of the Pali Canon with surviving portions of other early canons. Its main scriptures are the Vinaya Pitaka and the four principal Nikayas or Agamas.

Certain basic teachings appear in many places throughout the early texts, so most scholars conclude at least that the Buddha must have taught something of the kind:^[42]

Some scholars disagree, and have proposed many other theories.^[43]

[edit] Councils

According to the scriptures, soon after the parinirvÄṇa (PÄli: parinibbÄna, "complete extinguishment") of the Buddha, the first Buddhist council was held. As with any ancient Indian tradition, transmission of teaching was done orally. The primary purpose of the assembly was to collectively recite the teachings to ensure that no errors occured in oral transmission. In the first council, Ä€nanda, a cousin of the Buddha and his personal attendant, was called upon to recite the discourses (sÅ«tras, PÄli suttas) of the Buddha, and, according to some sources, the abhidhamma. UpÄli, another disciple, recited the monastic rules (Vinaya). Scholars regard the traditional accounts of the council as greatly exaggerated if not entirely fictitious.^[44]

According to most scholars, at some period after the Second Council however, the Sangha began to break into separate factions. (Schopen suggests that Buddhism was very diverse from the beginning and became less so.^[45]) The various accounts differ as to when the actual schisms occurred: according to the Dipavamsa of the Pali tradition, they started immediately after the Second Council; the Puggalavada tradition places it in 137 AN; the Sarvastivada tradition of Vasumitra says it was in the time of Asoka; and the Mahasanghika tradition places it much later, nearly 100 BCE.

The Asokan edicts, our only contemporary sources, state that 'the Sangha has been made unified'. This may refer to a dispute such as that described in the account of the Third Buddhist Council at Pataliputta. This concerns the expulsion of non-Buddhist heretics from the Sangha, and does not speak of a schism. However, the late Professor Hirakawa argued that the first schism occurred after the death of Asoka. These schisms occurred within the traditions of Early Buddhism, at a time when the MahÄyÄna movement either did not exist at all, or only existed as a current of thought not yet identified with a separate school.

The root schism was between the Sthaviras and the MahÄsÄá¹…ghikas. The fortunate survival of accounts from both sides of the dispute reveals disparate traditions. The Sthavira group offers two quite distinct reasons for the schism. The Dipavamsa of the TheravÄda says that the losing party in the Second Council dispute broke away in protest and formed the Mahasanghika. This contradicts the Mahasanghikas' own vinaya, which shows them as on the same, winning side. On the other hand, the northern lineages, including the Sarvastivada and Puggalavada (both branches of the ancient Sthaviras) attribute the MahÄsÄá¹…ghika schism to the '5 points' that erode the status of the arahant. For their part, the MahÄsÄá¹…ghikas argued that the Sthaviras were trying to expand the Vinaya; they may also have challenged what they perceived to be excessive claims or inhumanly high criteria for Arhatship. Both parties, therefore, appealed to tradition.^[46] The Sthaviras gave rise to several schools, one of which was the TheravÄda school. Originally, these schisms were caused by disputes over vinaya, and monks following different schools of thought seem to have lived happily together in the same monasteries, but eventually, by about 100 CE if not earlier, schisms were being caused by doctrinal disagreements too.^[47]

[edit] Further developments

Following (or leading up to) the schisms, each Saṅgha started to accumulate an Abhidharma, a collection of philosophical texts. Early sources for these probably existed in the time of the Buddha as simple lists. However, as time went on and Buddhism spread further, the (perceived) teachings of the Buddha were formalized in a more systematic manner in a new Pitaka: the Abhidhamma Pitaka. Some modern academics refer to it as Abhidhamma Buddhism. Interestingly, in the opinion of some scholars, the Mahasanghika school did not have an Abhidhamma Pitaka, which agrees with their statement that they did not want to add to the Buddha's teachings. But according to Chinese pilgrims Fa-hsien (Faxian) (5th century CE) and Hsüan-tsang (Xuanzang, 7th century CE), they had procured a copy of Abhidhamma which belonged to the Mahasanghika School.