Buddhism

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Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices, considered by some to be a religion,^[1] but not by all.^[2] A Buddhist is one who takes refuge in The Three Jewels: the Buddha (the Awakened One), the Dharma (the Teaching of the Buddha) and the Sangha (the Community of Buddhists). Depending on the source, the number of Buddhists in the world ranges from 230 to 500 million.^[3][4][5][6] Most Buddhists live in Asia, but adherants are found worldwide.

Buddhism is based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as "Buddha", who lived in the northeastern region of the Indian subcontinent. He probably died around 400 BCE.^[7] Buddhists recognize him as an awakened teacher who shared his insights to help sentient beings end their suffering by understanding the true nature of phenomena, thereby escaping the cycle of suffering and rebirth (saṃsÄra). Among the methods various schools of Buddhism apply towards this goal are: devotional practices, ritual, ethical conduct, the invocation of holy beings that help them achieve Nirvana, altruistic behaviour, renunciation of worldly matters, study, meditation, and cultivation of wisdom.

"Buddha" is actually a title, meaning the "Enlightened One" or, more literally, "Awakened One". Buddhism has spread through these main branches:

Both branches then spread further into Europe and to the Americas.

Buddhist schools disagree on what the historical teachings of Gautama Buddha were, so much so that some scholars claim Buddhism doesn't have a clearly definable common core.^[8] Also, there is significant disagreement over the importance of various scriptures. For instance, the Tipitaka's Nikayas (Agamas to Mahayana Buddhists) are recognized by most Buddhist schools. However, in addition to this, the Mahayana branch regard the Mahayana sutras as more significant, scriptures that the Theravadins find irrelevant. Also, Vajrayana Buddhists find great value in the Tantras.^[9]

Gautama Buddha

Main article: Gautama Buddha

The following information about Buddha´s life comes from the Tipitaka (other scriptures^[which?] give differing accounts). Siddhartha Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, was born in the city of Lumbini, Nepal, in Ancient India, and was raised in Kapilavastu.^[10][11] Moments after birth, according to the scriptures, he performed the first of several miracles. He took a few steps and proclaimed, "Supreme am I in the world. Greatest am I in the world. Noblest am I in the world. This is my last birth. Never shall I be reborn."

Shortly thereafter, a wise man visited his father, King Åšuddhodana. The wise man said that Siddhartha would either become a great king (chakravartin) or a holy man (Sadhu) based on whether he saw life outside of the palace walls. Determined to make Siddhartha a king, Åšuddhodana shielded his son from the unpleasant realities of daily life. Years after this, Gautama married Yasodhara, with whom he had a son, Rahula, who later became a Buddhist monk.

At the age of 29, Siddhartha ventured outside the palace complex several times despite his father's wishes. As a result he discovered the suffering of his people, through encounters with an old man, a diseased man, a decaying corpse and an ascetic. These are known among Buddhists as "The Four Sights",^[12] one of the first contemplations of Siddhartha. The Four Sights eventually prompted Gautama to abandon royal life to take up his spiritual quest to become free from suffering by living the life of a mendicant ascetic, a highly respected spiritual practice at the time in ancient India. He found companions with similar spiritual goals and teachers who taught him various forms of meditation, including jhÄna.

Ascetics practised many forms of self denial, including severe undereating. One day, after almost starving to death, Gautama accepted a little milk and rice from a village girl named Sujata. After this experience, he concluded that ascetic practices, such as fasting, holding one's breath, and exposure to pain, brought little spiritual benefit. He viewed them as counterproductive due to their reliance on self hatred and mortification.^[13] He abandoned asceticism, concentrating instead on anapanasati meditation (awareness of breathing), thus discovering what Buddhists call the Middle Way, a path of moderation between the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification.

After discovering the Middle Way, he sat under a Sacred fig tree, also known as the Bodhi tree, in the town of Bodh Gaya and vowed not to rise before achieving Nirvana. At age 35, after many days of meditation, he attained his goal of becoming a Buddha. He spent the rest of his life teaching the Dharma.^[14] He died at age 80 in Kushinagara, India of food poisoning.

Scholars are increasingly hesitant to make unqualified claims about the historical facts of Gautama Buddha's life.^[15][16] According to Michael Carrithers, while there are good reasons to doubt the traditional account, "the outline of the life must be true: birth, maturity, renunciation, search, awakening and liberation, teaching, death."^[17] Most historians accept that he lived, taught and founded a monastic order, but do not consistently accept most details in his biographies.^[18]

Buddhist Concepts

Main article: Buddhist terms and concepts

Karma: Cause and Effect

Main article: Karma in Buddhism

Karma is the energy which drives SaṃsÄra, the cycle of suffering and rebirth for each being. Kusala (good or skillful) and akusala (bad or unskillful) actions produce "seeds" in the mind which come to fruition either in this life or in a subsequent rebirth.^[19] The content of unwholesome actions and the lower types of wholesome actions belongs to the subject of Śīla (from Sanskrit: ethical conduct).

In Buddhism, Karma (from Sanskrit: action, work^[20]) is used specifically regarding those actions (of body, speech and mind) which spring from mental intent (in PÄli: cetana),^[21] and which bring about phala (from Sanskrit: fruit or consequence^[22]) or vipÄka (from PÄli: result). Every time a person acts there is some quality of intention at the base of the mind and it is that quality rather than the outward appearance of the action that determines the effect. Karma can be either negative or positive; with its respective negative or positive vipÄka.

The suffering caused by the karmic effects of previous thoughts, words and deeds can be alleviated by following the Noble Eightfold Path.^{[citation needed]} In Theravada Buddhism there is no divine salvation or forgiveness from one's karma. In contrast, in some Mahayana sutras it is taught that powerful sutras (such as the Lotus Sutra, the Angulimaliya Sutra and the Nirvana Sutra) can wholly expunge great swathes of negative karma by being heard or recited. According to the Japanese Pure Land teacher Genshin, the Buddha Amitabha has the power to destroy the karma that would otherwise bind one in samsara.^[23]

Rebirth

Main article: Rebirth (Buddhism)

Rebirth means beings go through a succession of lives, each running from conception^[24] to death, as one of many possible forms of sentient life, each existing within one of five realms, according to Theravadins, or six according to other schools.^[25][26] These are further subdivided into 31 planes of existence:^[27]

Rebirths in some of the higher heavens, known as the ÅšuddhÄvÄsa Worlds (Pure Abodes), can be attained only by anÄgÄmis (non-returners). Rebirths in the arupa-dhatu (formless realms) can be attained only by those who can meditate on the arupa-jhÄnas.

According to East Asian and Tibetan Buddhism, there is an intermediate state between one life and the next, but Theravada rejects this,^[29]

The Four Noble Truths

Main article: The Four Noble Truths

According to the Pali Tipitaka, the Four Noble Truths were the first teaching of Gautama Buddha after attaining Nirvana.^[30] They are sometimes considered as containing the essence of the teachings of the Buddha and are presented in the manner of a medical diagnosis and remedial prescription in a style that was common at that time:

According to a common interpretation, they roughly state that:

This interpretation is followed closely by many modern Theravadins,^{[citation needed]} described by early westerns scholars and taught as an introduction to Buddhism by some contemporary Mahayana teachers like the Dalai Lama.^[31]

According to other interpretations by Buddhist teachers and scholars and lately recognized by some western scholars as well^[32] the "truths" do not represent mere statements, but divisions or aspects of most phenomena, which falls into one of these four categories:

Thus, according to the Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism^[33] they are

The early teaching^[34], and the traditional understanding in the Theravada,^[35] is that the four noble truths are an advanced teaching for those who are ready for them. The Mahayana position is that they are a preliminary teaching for people not yet ready for the higher and more expansive Mahayana teachings.^[36] They are little known in the Far East.^[37]

The Noble Eightfold Path

Main article: Noble Eightfold Path

The Noble Eightfold Path, the fourth of the Buddha's Noble Truths, is the way to the cessation of suffering (dukkha). In the early sources (the four main Nikayas) it is not generally taught to laypeople, and it is little known in the Far East.^[38] It has eight sections, each starting with samyak (Sanskrit, meaning correctly, properly or well,^[39] frequently translated into English as right), and presented in three groups:

The practice of the Eightfold Path is understood in one of two ways. It either requires simultaneous development—all eight items are practiced in parallel, or it is conceived as a progressive series of stages through which the practitioner moves, the culmination of one leading to the beginning of another.

Middle Way

Main article: Middle Way

In general, the Middle Way or Middle Path (Sanskrit: madhyamÄ-pratipad; Pali: majjhimÄ paá¹­ipadÄ)[1] is the Buddhist practice of non-extremism.[2]

More specifically, in Theravada Buddhism's Pali Canon, the Middle Way crystallizes the Buddha's Nirvana-bound path of moderation away from the extremes of sensual indulgence and self-mortification and toward the practice of wisdom, morality and mental cultivation. In later Theravada texts as well as in Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism, the Middle Way refers to the concept, enunciated in the Canon, of direct knowledge that transcends seemingly antithetical claims about existence.

Reality in Buddhism

Main article: Reality in Buddhism

According to the scriptures, his lifetime, the Buddha remained silent when asked several metaphysical questions. On issues such as whether the universe is eternal or non-eternal, finite or infinite, unity or separation of the body and the self, complete inexistence of a person after nirvana and then death etc, the Buddha responded only with silence. One explanation for this is that such questions distract from practical activity for realizing enlightenment.^[48] Another is that both affirmative and negative positions regarding these questions are based on attachment to and misunderstanding of the aggregates and sense media. When one sees these things for what they are, as they are actually present, the idea of forming any of these positions simply does not occur to one.^[49] Another, closely related explanation is that reality, as it really is, is devoid of designations, and therefore language itself is a priori inadequate.^[50] T

The Buddha's silence does not indicate misology or disdain for philosophy. Rather, it indicates that he viewed these questions as not leading to true knowledge.^[51]Dependent origination is, according to some, one of the Buddha's great contributions to philosophy, and provides a framework for analysis of reality that is not based on metaphysical assumptions regarding existence or non-existence, but instead on direct cognition of phenomena as they are presented to the mind. This informs and supports the Buddhist approach to liberation via ethical and meditative training known as the Noble Eightfold Path.

The Buddha is said not to have given lengthy descriptions of "ultimate reality." According to Karel Werner,

The Mahayana developed those statements he is said to have made into an extensive, diverse set of sometimes contrasting descriptions of reality "as it really is."^[53]

In the Pali Canon and numerous Mahayana sutras and Tantras, the Buddha is portrayed stessing that Dharma (Truth) cannot truly be understood with the ordinary rational mind or logic: Reality transcends all worldly concepts. What is urged is study, mental and moral self-cultivation and confidence in the sutras^{[citation needed]}, which are as fingers pointing to the Truth, not the Truth itself. Then to let go of rationalizations and to experience direct Liberation itself.

In the Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra, the Buddha in the self-styled "Uttara-Tantra", insists that, while pondering upon Dharma is vital, one must then relinquish fixation on words and letters, as these are utterly divorced from Liberation and the Bodhi nature. The Tantra entitled the "All-Creating King" (Kunjed Gyalpo Tantra, a scripture of the Nyingma school of Tibetan Buddhism) also emphasises how Buddhist Truth lies beyond the range of discursive/verbal thought and is ultimately mysterious. The Supreme Buddha, Samantabhadra, states there: "The mind of perfect purity ... is beyond thinking and inexplicable ...."^[54] Also later, the famous Indian Buddhist yogi and teacher mahasiddha Tilopa discouraged any intellectual activity in his 6 words of advice.

Most Buddhists agree that, to a greater or lesser extent, words are inadequate to describe the goal; schools differ radically on the usefulness of words in the path to that goal.^[55]

Buddhist scholars have produced a prodigious quantity of intellectual theories, philosophies and world view concepts. See e.g. Abhidharma, Buddhist philosophy and Reality in Buddhism. Some schools of Buddhism discourage doctrinal study, but most regard it as having a place, at least for some people at some stages.

Mahayana often adopts a pragmatic concept of truth:^[56] doctrines are "true" in the sense of being spiritually beneficial. In modern Chinese Buddhism, all doctrinal traditions are regarded as equally valid.^[57]

MahÄyÄna Buddhism received significant theoretical grounding from NÄgÄrjuna (perhaps c.150–250 CE), arguably the most influential scholar within the MahÄyÄna tradition. Some of the writings attributed to him made explicit references to MahÄyÄna texts, but his philosophy was argued within the parameters set out by the agamas. NÄgÄrjuna asserted that the nature of the dharmas (hence the enlightenment) to be śūnya (void or empty), bringing together other key Buddhist doctrines, particularly anÄtman (no-self) and pratÄ«tyasamutpÄda (dependent origination). His school of thought is known as the Madhyamaka. He may have arrived at his positions from a desire to achieve a consistent exegesis of the Buddha's doctrine as recorded in the Canon. In the eyes of Nagarjuna the Buddha was not merely a forerunner, but the very founder of the Madhyamaka system.^[58]

SarvÄstivÄda teaching, which was criticized by NÄgÄrjuna, was reformulated by scholars such as Vasubandhu and Asaá¹…ga and were adapted into the YogÄcÄra (Sanskrit: yoga practice) school. While the Madhyamaka school held that asserting the existence or non-existence of any ultimately real thing was inappropriate, some exponents of YogÄcÄra asserted that the mind and only the mind is ultimately real. Not all YogÄcÄrins asserted that mind was truly existent, Vasubandhu and Asaá¹…ga in particular did not.^[59] These two schools of thought, in opposition or synthesis, form the basis of subsequent MahÄyÄna metaphysics in the Indo-Tibetan tradition.

In the Mahayana school, emphasis is also often placed on the notions of Emptiness (shunyata), perfected spiritual insight (prajnaparamita) and Buddha-nature (the deathless tathagatagarbha, or Buddha womb, inherent in all beings and creatures). In the tathagatagarbha sutras the Buddha is portrayed proclaiming that the teaching of the tathagatagarbha constitutes the "absolutely final culmination" of his Dharma—the highest presentation of Truth (other sūtras make similar statements about other teachings). This has traditionally been regarded as the highest teaching in East Asian Buddhism. However, in modern China all doctrines are regarded as equally valid.^[60] The Mahayana can also on occasion communicate a vision of the Buddha or Dharma which amounts to mysticism and gives expression to a form of mentalist panentheism (God in Buddhism).

TheravÄda promotes the concept of Vibhajjavada (Pali), literally "Teaching of Analysis". This doctrine says that insight must come from the aspirant's experience, critical investigation, and reasoning instead of by blind faith.

The Cycle of Samsara

Main article: PratÄ«tyasamutpÄda

Human beings crave pleasure and satisfaction of the six senses (seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, touching and thinking) from birth to death. After another rebirth they do the same, and continue repeating this cycle (Samsara). Humans always expect pleasure and do not like to feel pain. This cycle of suffering is explained in twelve links of dependent origination, each conditioning the next:

Human beings always suffer throughout samsara, until they become free from this suffering when attaining Nirvana. Then the absence of ignorance leads to the absence of the others as above.

Nirvana

Main article: Nirvana

Nirvana (Sanskrit; Pali "Nibbana") means "cessation", "extinction" (of suffering) or (tṛṣṇÄ) "extinguished", "quited", "calmed"^[66]; it's also known as "Awakening" or "Enlightenment" in the West. Also, Buddhists believe that anybody who has achieved nirvana (also known as bodhi) is in fact a Buddha.

Mahayana Buddhism generally regards as its most important teaching the path of the bodhisattva. This already existed as a possibility in earlier Buddhism, as it still does in Theravada today, but the Mahayana gave it an increasing emphasis, eventually saying everyone should follow it.

In the Mahayana, the Buddha tend to be viewed as merely human, but as the earthly projection of a beginningless and endless, omnipresent being (see Dharmakaya) beyond the range and reach of thought. Moreover, in certain Mahayana sutras, the Buddha, Dharma and Sangha are viewed essentially as One: all three are seen as the eternal Buddha himself.

Bodhi (PÄli and Sanskrit, in devanagari: बॊधि) is a term applied to the experience of Awakening of arahants. Bodhi literally means "awakening", but is more commonly referred to as "enlightenment". In Early Buddhism Bodhi carries a meaning synonymous to Nirvana, using only some different similes to describe the experience, which implied the extinction of raga (greed),^[67]dosa (hate)^[68] and moha (delusion).^[69]

Buddhas

Main article: Buddhahood

Theravada

A person may awaken from the "sleep of ignorance" by directly realizing the true nature of reality; such people are called arahants. After numerous lifetimes of spiritual striving they have also reached the end of the compulsive cycle of rebirths, no longer reincarnating as human, animal, ghost, or other being.

These people, also occasionally referred to as buddhas, are classified into three types.

Bodhi and Nirvana carry the same meaning, that of being freed from craving, hate and delusion. The Arahant, according to Theravada doctrine, has thus overcome greed, hatred, and delusion, attaining Bodhi. In Theravada Buddhism, the extinction of only greed (in relation to the sense sphere) and hatred, while a residue of delusion remains, is called Anagami.

Mahayana

Celestial Buddhas are individuals who no longer exist on the material plane of existence, but who still aid in the enlightenment of all beings.

Nirvana came to refer only to the extinction of greed and hate, implying that delusion was still present in one who attained Nirvana. Bodhi became a higher attainment that eradicate delusion entirely.^[70] Thus, the Arahant attains Nirvana but not Bodhi, thus still being subject to delusion, while the Buddha attains Bodhi.

The method of self-exertion or "self-power" - without reliance on an external force or being - stands in contrast to another major form of Buddhism, "Pure Land", which is characterised by utmost trust in the salvific "other-power" of Amida Buddha. Pure Land Buddhism is a very widespread and perhaps the most faith-orientated manifestation of Buddhism and centres upon the conviction that faith in Amitabha Buddha and/or the chanting of homage to his name will liberate one at death into the "happy land" (sukhavati) or "pure land" of Amitabha (called Amida in Japanese) Buddha. This Buddhic realm is variously construed as a foretaste of Nirvana, or as essentially Nirvana itself. The great vow of Amitabha Buddha to rescue all beings from samsaric suffering is viewed within Pure Land Buddhism as universally efficacious, if only people will have faith in the power of that limitless great Vow, or will utter the liberational chant of Amida's name.

Nearly all Chinese Buddhists accept that the chances of attaining sufficient enlightenment by one's own efforts are very slim, so that Pure Land practice is essential as an "insurance policy" even if one practises something else.^[71]

Buddha Eras

Buddhists believe the Gautama Buddha was the first to achieve enlightenment in this Buddha era and is therefore credited with the establishment of Buddhism. A Buddha era is the stretch of history during which people remember and practice the teachings of the earliest known Buddha. This Buddha era will end when all the knowledge, evidence and teachings of Gautama Buddha have vanished. This belief therefore maintains that many Buddha eras have started and ended throughout the course of human existence.^[72][73] The Gautama Buddha, then, is the Buddha of this era, who taught directly or indirectly to all other Buddhas in it (see types of Buddhas).

In addition, Mahayana believes there are innumerable other Buddhas in other universes,^[74] but Theravada denies this.^{[citation needed]}

The idea of the decline and gradual disappearance of the teaching has been influential in East Asian Buddhism. Pure Land Buddhism holds that it has declined to the point where few if any are capable of following the path, so most or all must rely on the power of the Buddha Amitabha. Zen and Nichiren traditionally hold that few if any can follow the "complicated" path of some other schools, and present a "simple" practice instead.

Bodhisattvas

Bodhisattva means either "enlightened (bodhi) existence (sattva)" or "enlightenment-being" or, given the variant Sanskrit spelling satva rather than sattva, "heroic-minded one (satva) for enlightenment (bodhi)". Another translation is "Wisdom-Being".^[75]

The various divisions of Buddhism understand the word Bodhisattva in different ways. Theravada and some Mahayana sources consider a Bodhisattva as someone on the path to Buddhahood, while other Mahayana sources speak of Bodhisattvas renouncing Buddhahood^[76], but especially in Mahayana Buddhism, it mainly refers to a being that compassionately refrains from entering nirvana in order to save others. So the Bodhisattva is a person who already has a considerable degree of enlightenment and seeks to use their wisdom to help other sentient beings to become liberated themselves.

While Theravada regards it as an option, Mahayana encourages everyone to follow a Bodhisattva path and to take the Bodhisattva vows. With these vows, one makes the promise to work for the complete enlightenment of all sentient beings.

A famous saying by the 8th-century Indian Buddhist scholar-saint Shantideva, which the Dalai Lama often cites as his favourite verse, summarizes the Bodhisattva's intention (Bodhicitta) as follows: "For as long as space endures, and for as long as living beings remain, until then may I too abide to dispel the misery of the world."

According to the Mahayana, a Bodhisattva practices in the six perfections: giving, morality, patience, joyous effort, concentration and wisdom.

Practice

Devotion

Main article: Buddhist devotion

Devotion is an important part of the practice of most Buddhists.^[77] Devotional practices include bowing, offerings, pilgrimage, chanting. In Pure Land Buddhism, devotion to the Buddha Amitabha is the main practice. In Nichiren Buddhism, devotion to the Lotus Sutra is the main practice.

Refuge in the Three Jewels

Main articles: Refuge (Buddhism) and Three Jewels

Traditionally, the first step in most Buddhist schools requires taking refuge in the Three Jewels (Sanskrit: tri-ratna, PÄli: ti-ratana)^[78] as the foundation of one's religious practice. The practice of taking refuge on behalf of young or even unborn children is mentioned^[79] in the Majjhima Nikaya, recognized by most scholars as an early text (cf Infant baptism). Tibetan Buddhism sometimes adds a fourth refuge, in the lama. In Mahayana, the person who chooses the bodhisattva path makes a vow/pledge; which is considered the ultimate expression of compassion.

The "Three Jewels" are:

According to the scriptures, Gautama Buddha presented himself as a model. The Dharma offers a refuge by providing guidelines for the alleviation of suffering and the attainment of Nirvana. The Saá¹…gha (Buddhist Order of monks) is considered to provide a refuge by preserving the authentic teachings of the Buddha and providing further examples that the truth of the Buddha's teachings is attainable.

Buddhist Ethics

Main article: The Five Precepts

Śīla (Sanskrit) or sÄ«la (PÄli) is usually translated into English as "virtuous behavior", "morality", "ethics" or "precept". It is an action committed through the body, speech, or mind, and involves an intentional effort. It is one of the three practices (sila, samadhi, and panya) and the second pÄramitÄ. It refers to moral purity of thought, word, and deed. The four conditions of śīla are chastity, calmness, quiet, and extinguishment.

Śīla is the foundation of Samadhi/BhÄvana (Meditative cultivation) or mind cultivation. Keeping the precepts promotes not only the peace of mind of the cultivator, which is internal, but also peace in the community, which is external. According to the Law of Karma, keeping the precepts are meritorious and it acts as causes which would bring about peaceful and happy effects. Keeping these precepts keeps the cultivator from rebirth in the four woeful realms of existence.

Śīla refers to overall principles of ethical behavior. There are several levels of sila, which correspond to "basic morality" (five precepts), "basic morality with asceticism" (eight precepts), "novice monkhood" (ten precepts) and "monkhood" (Vinaya or Patimokkha). Lay people generally undertake to live by the five precepts, which are common to all Buddhist schools. If they wish, they can choose to undertake the eight precepts, which add basic asceticism.

The five precepts are training rules in order to live a better life in which one is happy, without worries, and can meditate well.

1. To refrain from taking life (non-violence towards sentient life forms)

2. To refrain from taking that which is not given (not committing theft)

3. To refrain from sensual (sexual) misconduct

4. To refrain from lying (speaking truth always)

5. To refrain from intoxicants which lead to loss of mindfulness (specifically, drugs and alcohol)

In the eight precepts, the third precept on sexual misconduct is made more strict, and becomes a precept of celibacy. The three additional precepts are:

6. To refrain from eating at the wrong time (only eat from sunrise to noon)

7. To refrain from dancing and playing music, wearing jewelry and cosmetics, attending shows and other performances

8. To refrain from using high or luxurious seats and bedding

Monastic life

Vinaya is the specific moral code for monks and nuns. It includes the Patimokkha, a set of 227 rules for monks in the Theravadin recension. The precise content of the vinayapitaka (scriptures on Vinaya) differ slightly according to different schools, and different schools or subschools set different standards for the degree of adherence to Vinaya. Novice-monks use the ten precepts, which are the basic precepts for monastics.

In Eastern Buddhism, there is also a distinctive Vinaya and ethics contained within the Mahayana Brahmajala Sutra (not to be confused with the Pali text of that name) for Bodhisattvas, where, for example, the eating of meat is frowned upon and vegetarianism is actively encouraged (see vegetarianism in Buddhism). In Japan, this has almost completely displaced the monastic vinaya, and allows clergy to marry.

Meditation

Main article: Buddhist meditation

Buddhist meditation is fundamentally concerned with two themes: transforming the mind and using it to explore itself and other phenomena.^[80] According to Theravada Buddhism the Buddha taught two types of meditation, samatha meditation (Sanskrit: Å›amatha) and vipassanÄ meditation (Sanskrit: vipaÅ›yanÄ). In Chinese Buddhism, these exist (translated chih kuan), but Chan (Zen) meditation is more popular.^[81] Throughout most of Buddhist history before modern times, serious meditation by lay people has been unusual.^[82]

SamÄdhi/BhÄvanÄ (Meditative cultivation): samatha meditation

Main articles: Samadhi and DhyÄna

In the language of the Noble Eightfold Path, samyaksamÄdhi is "right concentration". The primary means of cultivating samÄdhi is meditation. Upon development of samÄdhi, one's mind becomes purified of defilement, calm, tranquil, and luminous.

Once the meditator achieves a strong and powerful concentration (jhÄna, Sanskrit धà¥à¤¯à¤¾à¤¨ dhyÄna), his mind is ready to penetrate and gain insight (vipassanÄ) into the ultimate nature of reality, eventually obtaining release from all suffering. The cultivation of mindfulness is essential to mental concentration, which is needed to achieve insight.

Samatha Meditation starts from being mindful of an object or idea, which is expanded to one's body, mind and entire surroundings, leading to a state of total concentration and tranquility (jhÄna) There are many variations in the style of meditation, from sitting cross-legged or kneeling to chanting or walking. The most common method of meditation is to concentrate on one's breath (anapanasati), because this practice can lead to both samatha and vipassana'.

In Buddhist practice, it is said that while samatha meditation can calm the mind, only vipassanÄ meditation can reveal how the mind was disturbed to start with, which is what leads to jñÄna (PÄli ñÄṇa knowledge), prajÃ±Ä (PÄli paÃ±Ã±Ä pure understanding) and thus can lead to nirvÄṇa (PÄli nibbÄna). When one is in jhana, all defilements are suppressed temporarily. Only prajÃ±Ä or vipassana eradicates the defilements completely. Jhanas are also resting states which arahants abide in order to rest.

In TheravÄda

Main article: JhÄna in Theravada

In TheravÄda Buddhism, the cause of human existence and suffering is identified as the craving, which carries with it the various defilements. These various defilements are traditionally summed up as greed, hatred and delusion. These are believed to be parasites that have infested the mind and create suffering and stress. In order to be free from suffering and stress, these defilements need to be permanently uprooted through internal investigation, analyzing, experiencing, and understanding of the true nature of those defilements by using jhÄna, a technique which is part of the Noble Eightfold Path. It will then lead the meditator to realize the Four Noble Truths, Enlightenment and Nibbana. Nibbana is the ultimate goal of Theravadins.

PrajÃ±Ä (Wisdom): vipassana meditation

Main articles: PrajÃ±Ä and Vipassana

PrajÃ±Ä (Sanskrit) or paÃ±Ã±Ä (PÄli) means wisdom that is based on a realization of dependent origination, The Four Noble Truths and the three marks of existence. PrajÃ±Ä is the wisdom that is able to extinguish afflictions and bring about bodhi. It is spoken of as the principal means of attaining nirvÄṇa, through its revelation of the true nature of all things as dukkha (unsatisfactoriness), anicca (impermanence) and anatta (not-self). PrajÃ±Ä is also listed as the sixth of the six pÄramitÄs of the Mahayana.

Initially, prajÃ±Ä is attained at a conceptual level by means of listening to sermons (dharma talks), reading, studying and sometimes reciting Buddhist texts and engaging in discourse. Once the conceptual understanding is attained, it is applied to daily life so that each Buddhist can verify the truth of the Buddha's teaching at a practical level. It should be noted that one could theoretically attain nirvana at any point of practice, while listening to a sermon, while conducting business of daily life or while in meditation.

Zen

Main article: Zen

Ch'an (Chinese) or Zen (Japanese) Buddhism (derived from the Sanskrit term, dhyana - "meditation") is a form of Buddhism that became popular in China and Japan and that lays special emphasis on meditation.^[83] Zen places less emphasis on scriptures than some other forms of Buddhism and prefers to focus on direct spiritual breakthroughs to truth.

Zen Buddhism is divided into two main schools: Rinzai and Soto, the former greatly favouring the use in meditation on the koan (meditative riddle or puzzle) as a device for spiritual break-through, and the latter (while certainly employing koans) focusing more on shikantaza or "just sitting".^[84]

Zen Buddhist teaching is often full of paradox, in order to loosen the grip of the ego and to facilitate the penetration into the realm of the True Self or Formless Self, which is equated with the Buddha himself.^[85] Nevertheless, Zen does not neglect the scriptures.^[86]

Tantra

Though based upon Mahayana, Tibeto-Mongolian Buddhism is one of the schools that practice VajrayÄna or "Diamond Vehicle" (also referred to as MantrayÄna, TantrayÄna, Tantric Buddhism, or esoteric Buddhism). It accepts all the basic concepts of MahÄyÄna, but also includes a vast array of spiritual and physical techniques designed to enhance Buddhist practice. Tantric Buddhism is largely concerned with ritual and meditative practices.^[87] One component of the VajrayÄna is harnessing psycho-physical energy through ritual, visualization, and meditation as a means of developing the mind. Using these techniques, it is claimed that a practitioner can achieve Buddhahood in one lifetime, or even as little as three years.

History

Main article: History of Buddhism

Indian Buddhism

Main article: History of Buddhism in India

The history of Indian Buddhism may be divided into the following five periods:^[88]

Pre-sectarian Buddhism

Main article: Pre-sectarian Buddhism

The earliest phase of Buddhism (pre-sectarian Buddhism) recognized by nearly all scholars (the main exception is Dr Gregory Schopen,^[91]) is based on a comparison of the Pali Canon with surviving portions o