1990s
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Establishments - Disestablishments
For the band, see 1990s (band).
The 1990s collectively refers to the years between and including 1990 and 1999. During this time, the widespread adoption of personal computers, the Internet and the increased economic productivity led to the equity market booms around the world, and caused an influx of wealth to the United States, Europe and Asia.
This decade started with the United States invasion of Iraq, as well as the cementation of free-market capitalism in many economic systems worldwide. During this decade, racial prejudice lost moral acceptance,[citation needed] and the gender roles for women began to increase dramatically in many industrialized countries.
Contents
[edit] Economics
Many countries, institutions, companies, and organizations experienced the 1990s as a prosperous time. High-income countries such as the United States, Western Europe, and South Korea experienced steady economic growth for much of the decade. However, in the former Soviet Union GDP decreased as their economies restructured to produce goods they needed and some capital flight occurred.
Oil and gas were discovered in many countries in the former Soviet bloc, leading to economic growth and wider adoption of trade between nations. These trends were also fueled by inexpensive fossil energy, with low petroleum prices caused by a glut of oil. Political stability and decreased militarization due to the winding down of the Cold War led to economic development and higher standards of living for many citizens.
Personal incomes doubled from the recession in 1990, and there was higher productivity overall. After the 1996 Welfare Reform Act there was a reduction of poverty, [1] and the Wall Street stock exchange stayed over the 10,000 mark from 1999 to 2001. After the 1992 booming of the US stock market, Alan Greenspan coined the phrase "irrational exuberance". GATT update and creation of the World Trade Organization and other global economic institutions, but opposition by anti-globalization activists showed up in nearly every GATT summit, like the demonstrations in Seattle in December 1999. With the creation of the E.U. there is free movement of labor between member states, such as the 1992 and 1995 free trade agreements. The EU agreed to have a single currency, and the Euro began circulation in March 1999 in 12 member states. The Philippines saw great economic development after The People Power revolt. The economy gains 5% from its deficit until the Asian financial crisis of 1997. The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which phases out trade barriers between the United States, Mexico and Canada is signed into law by U.S. President Bill Clinton. From 1990 until 1998 inclusive, the economy of Russia and some former USSR states was in a severe depression. Eastern European economies struggled after the fall of communism, but Poland, Hungary, Estonia and Lithuania saw healthy economic growth rates in the late 1990s. Except for the United Kingdom and Ireland, much of Europe had serious economic problems, such as the massive 1995 general strikes in France during its worst recession since World War II. The French economy mildly rebounds at the end of the decade. Democracy, economic reform and peace arrive in Latin America, while the sluggish economies of Brazil, by a new emphasis on free markets for all their citizens, and Mexico, under economist president Ernesto Zedillo elected in 1994, were their best shape by the late 1990s. Financial crisis hits East and Southeast Asia in 1997 and 1998 after a long period of phenomenal economic development. Japan was heavily affected, as was Indonesia when the 30-year rule of President Suharto ended in his resignation after widespread protests in May 1998. See East Asian Tigers.
[edit] World-changing events
Significant events that occurred during or after 1990 which would influence the course of history and character of the decade, include:
The Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in August 2, 1990. The German reunification in October 3, 1990 as a result of the fall of the Berlin Wall The resignation of Margaret Thatcher as leader of the Conservative Party and Prime Minister of the UK followed by the election and appointment of John Major as her successor on November 28, 1990. The Moscow Coup and subsequent break-up of the Soviet Union on December 21, 1991.
Significant events that marked the passing of the decade include:
The resignation of President Boris Yeltsin on December 31, 1999 resulting in Prime Minister Vladimir Putin's succession to the position World-wide New Year's Eve celebrations on December 31, 1999. Worldwide concern about possible widespread computer malfunctions resulting from the Year 2000 problem.
[edit] Science
Physicists develop string theory and M-theory. Detection of extrasolar planets orbiting stars other than the sun. Dolly the sheep is cloned. Human Genome Project begins. DNA identification of individuals finds wide application in criminal law. Hubble Space Telescope launched in 1990; revolutionizes astronomy. Protease inhibitors introduced allowing HAART therapy against HIV; drastically reduces AIDS mortality. NASA's spacecraft Pathfinder lands on Mars and deploys a small roving vehicle, Sojourner, which analyzes the planet's geology and atmosphere. The Hale-Bopp comet swings past the sun for the first time in 4,200 years in April 1997. Development of biodegradable products, replacing products made from Styrofoam; advances in methods for recycling of waste products (such as paper, glass, aluminum). Genetically engineered crops are developed for commercial use. Discovery of dark matter, dark energy, brown dwarfs, and first confirmation of black holes. The Galileo probe orbits Jupiter, studying the planet and its moons extensively. The Global Positioning System (GPS) becomes fully operational. Proof of Fermat's last theorem is discovered by Andrew Wiles. Construction starts on the International Space Station – 1996
[edit] Technology
- See also: 1990s in technology & science
Some technologies invented and improved during the 1990s:
[edit] Hardware
The Pentium processor is developed by Intel. Explosive growth of the Internet, perhaps caused by a decrease in the cost of computers and other technology. Advancements in computer modems, ISDN, cable modems and DSL lead to faster connection to the Internet. Pagers are initially popular but ultimately are replaced by mobile phones toward the end of the decade. Hand-held satellite phones are introduced towards the end of the decade. CD burner drives are introduced. Digital SLRs and regular Digital cameras become commercially available. The DVD media format is developed and popularized along with a plethora of Flash memory card standards. Apple introduces the iMac computer, initiating a trend in computer design towards translucent plastics and multicolor case design, discontinuing many legacy technologies like serial ports, and beginning a resurgence in the company's fortunes that continues unabated to this day. IBM introduces the 1-inch wide Microdrive hard drive in 170 MB and 340 MB capacities. The first GSM network is launched in Finland in 1991 The first MP3 Player, the MPMan, is released in late spring of 1998. It came with 32Mb of flash memory expandable to 64Mb. The introduction of affordable, smaller satellite dishes and the DVB-S standard in the mid-1990s expanded satellite television services that carried up to 500 television channels.
[edit] Software
The World Wide Web and HTML are created by Tim Berners-Lee and eventually displace the Gopher protocol. Microsoft introduces Windows 95 and later Windows 98 to the market, which gain immediate popularity. The development of Web browsers such as Netscape Navigator and Internet Explorer makes surfing the World Wide Web easier and more user friendly. The Java programming language is developed by Sun Microsystems. Businesses start to build E-commerce websites; E-commerce-only companies such as Amazon.com, eBay, AOL, and Yahoo! grow rapidly. E-mail becomes popular; as a result Microsoft acquires the popular Hotmail.com webmail service. Instant Messaging and the Buddy list becomes popular. AIM and ICQ are two early protocols. The Year 2000 problem (commonly known as Y2K), the computer glitch disaster expected to happen on January 1, 2000. Microsoft Windows operating systems become virtually ubiquitous on IBM PCs. Development of the free Linux kernel is started by Linus Torvalds in Finland.
[edit] Computer and video games
- See also: 1990s in video gaming
3-D graphics become the standard by end of decade. Although FPSs had long since seen the transition to full 3D, other genres begin to copy this trend by the end of the decade. Lara Croft became the first video game sex symbol, becoming a recognisable figure in the entertainment industry throughout the late 1990s. The console wars, primarily between Sega (Sega Mega Drive (marketed as the Sega Genesis in North America), introduced in 1988) and Nintendo (Super NES, introduced in 1990), sees the entrance of Sony with the PlayStation in 1994, which becomes the first successful CD-based console (as opposed to cartridges). By the end of the decade, Sega's hold on the market becomes tenuous after the end of the Saturn in 1998 and the Dreamcast in 2001. Mario finds a rival in Sonic the Hedgehog with the release of the original game on the Genesis in 1991. Arcade games rapidly decrease in popularity. Fighting games like Capcom's Street Fighter II, Sega's futuristic Virtua Fighter and the more violent Mortal Kombat from Acclaim prompted the video game industry to adopt a game rating system, and hundreds of knock-offs are widely popular in mid-to-late1990s. Sony's PlayStation becomes the top selling game console and changes the standard media storage type from cartridges to compact discs in consoles. Doom (1993) bursts onto the world scene and instantly popularizes the FPS genre, and even how games are played, as Doom is among the first games to feature multiplayer capabilities. It is not until Quake (1996), however, that game developers begin to take multiplayer features into serious consideration when making games. Half-Life (1998) features the next evolutionary step in the genre with continual progression of the game (no levels in the traditional sense) and an entirely in-person view, and becomes one of the most popular computer games in history. The real-time strategy (RTS) genre is introduced in 1992 with the release of Dune II. Warcraft: Orcs & Humans (1994) popularizes the genre, with Command & Conquer and Warcraft II: Tides of Darkness in 1995 sets up the first major real-time strategy competition and popularizes multiplayer capabilities in RTS games. StarCraft in 1998 becomes the second best-selling computer game of all time. It remains among the most popular multiplayer RTS games to this day, especially in South Korea. Homeworld in 1999 becomes the first successful 3d RTS game. The rise of the RTS genre is often credited with the fall of the turn-based strategy (TBS) genre, popularized with Civilization in 1991. The Civilization franchise is the only TBS franchise that remains popular. Final Fantasy first debuted (in North America) in 1990 for the NES, and remains among the most popular video game franchises, with 12 new titles to date, with another in development, plus numerous spin-offs, sequels, movies and related titles. Final Fantasy VII, released in 1997, especially popularized the series. Zelda continues its massive popularity with a series of groundbreaking games, including The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time, released in 1998, which is considered one of the best and most groundbreaking games of all time. Massively Multiplayer Online Role-playing games (MMORPGs) see their entrance into the computer game world with Ultima Online in 1997, although they don't gain widespread popularity until EverQuest and Asheron's Call in 1999. MMORPGs go on to become among the most popular genres in the 2000s. Pokémon entered the world scene with the release of the original Game Boy Pokémon Red and Pokémon Green games in Japan in 1996, later changed to Pokémon Red and Pokémon Blue for worldwide release in 1998. It soon becomes popular in the U.S. and is adapted into a popular children's anime series and trading card game, among other media forms. Its popularity remains well into the 2000s with several new games and spin-offs.
[edit] Culture
[edit] Cultural Trends
Youth culture in the 1990s was characterized by environmentalism and entrepreneurship. Fashions were often individualistic, tattoos and body piercing gained popularity, and "retro" styles inspired by fashions of the 1960s and 1970s were also prevalent. Some young people became increasingly involved in outdoor activities that combined embracing athletics with the appreciation of nature. Jam bands grew in popularity. Along with these Jam bands came a new popularity of 1960's counter-culture. Following the 1980s media counter-culture lead by tabloid talk shows popularized by Oprah Winfrey in 1986, which provided high-impact media visibility for gays, bisexuals, transsexuals, and transgender people [1] the 1990s saw a further increase in gay visibility in the mainstream media. In 1990, the World Health Organization removed homosexuality from its list of diseases. US TV shows featured gay characters. Movies with gay characters saw mainstream success, and celebrities spoke openly about their sexuality. U.S. President Bill Clinton generally held a pro-gay rights viewpoint.
The 500th anniversary of Christopher Columbus' discovery of America in 1992 was popularly observed, despite controversy and protests against Columbus' expeditions victimization of Native Americans. The holiday was labeled by some as racist, in view of Native American experiences of colonialism, slavery, genocide and cultural destruction. Douglas Coupland publishes the novel Generation X: Tales for an Accelerated Culture, popularizing the term Generation X as the name of the generation born in the late 1960s and early 1970s (then college-age). The Grunge trend explodes, with several Grunge bands gaining mainstream success, and the attendant fashion caught on widely. Reality television began on MTV; this would grow in importance into the 2000s. Blood and gore in television and video games rose dramatically, along with language and sexual content, especially during the latter half of the decade; a Parental Ratings system for television was introduced in 1997 because of related complaints. Video games became more advanced and popular, with several makes becoming big sellers. Simulation and God games rose in popularity in the mid-late 1990s. Extreme sports reached a new height in popularity, and by 1995, were given their own annual tournament on US cable network ESPN. Extended alcohol sales are implemented in the US to reduce alcohol abuse. The exploitation of the collectability of comic books results in a trend of "gimmick" packaging and storylines (most notably The Death of Superman). The comic book industry collapses as interest in print comics decreases among younger generations and casual readers. Comic books disappear as a familiar sight at the newsstands. As comics, including Japanese manga and other graphic novels become more available in bookstore chains, the role of the comic book store as a source for comics and social gathering wanes. The domination by industry giants Marvel Comics and DC Comics ends as various independents produce popular titles. The era of comic book collecting for speculative investment ends. Webcomics by amateur cartoonists become popular. Conversion to Block scheduling became a trendy initiative for United States schools.
Due to the success of the Ford Explorer, Sport Utility Vehicles became very popular among families, and effectively replaced the station wagon and minivan as the stereotypical family vehicle. Major 1990s slang words/phrases, mostly related to hip hop culture, included "Talk to the hand." Dogme 95 becomes an important European artistic film movement by the end of the decade. Eurodance music dominates discotheques and has numerous major mainstream hits in European (and to a lesser extent, North American) music charts. Mainstream "Techno", as it is dubbed by the media, became hugely popular in Europe and the U.S. From the early raves of 1990 to about 1996, electronic music gradually gained widespread recognition as a new genre in its own right. This trend reached a head in the latter part of the decade as underground parties were largely replaced by massive commercially sponsored parties, and as music media such as MTV began coverage of it.
Media consolidation leads to increased segmentation in styles of music. 24-hour CNN coverage during the Gulf War leads to increased awareness and coverage of world events and Infotainment shows. Hip-hop culture grows; by the end of the decade hip hop gained more and more popularity. Tupac Shakur of Death Row Records and The Notorious BIG of Bad Boy Records, wage a cultural war in the hip hop music scene, culminating with the (possibly related) murder of both Shakur in 1996 and BIG in 1997. Professional wrestling experiences a huge rise in popularity. Electronica is hugely popular on Top 40 radio from 1990 to present and up to 1996 or 1997 in the U.S. Alternative rock overtakes Grunge in popularity around 1995. Nu metal, a genre popularized by the 1994 self-titled album by Korn, becomes a major genre of rock around the year 1997 along with post-grunge and "indie rock". Indie/hipster culture appears during the mid-1990s. Emo and "scene" culture flourishes in the late 1990s, most likely around the later part of 1998. Teen pop makes a comeback in the mid-1990s Christian music peaks in the mid to late 1990s. R&B Music and hip-hop influenced R&B are big in the 1990s.
[edit] Fashion
- See also: 1990s in fashion
The 1990s in popular culture is typically referred to as the decade of "anti-fashion". In reality, anti-fashion was only one of many trends in fashion in the 1990s. The fashion of the 1990s was characterized by minimalist styles, and many overlapping, often contradictory trends. The most significant event was the rise of grunge fashion in 1992. In the late 1990s there was a move away from grunge. Retro clothing inspired by the 1960s and 1970s was popular for much of the 1990s.
[edit] Music
Popular styles include alternative rock (Red Hot Chili Peppers, R.E.M., Sonic Youth, The Smashing Pumpkins), grunge (Nirvana, Stone Temple Pilots, Pearl Jam, Alice in Chains, Soundgarden), post-grunge (Matchbox Twenty, Soul Asylum, Collective Soul, Third Eye Blind, Everclear, Creed, Foo Fighters, Our Lady Peace, Stiltskin, Silverchair), heavy metal and alternative metal (Helmet, Marilyn Manson, Nine Inch Nails, Metallica, Pantera, Tool), black metal (Dimmu Borgir, Gorgoroth), Britpop and British rock (Oasis, Blur, Supergrass, the Manic Street Preachers, the Stone Roses, Suede, Pulp, Radiohead, The Verve, Travis), pop punk (Green Day, The Offspring, Rancid, Blink-182), third wave ska (No Doubt, Sublime, Reel Big Fish, Mighty Mighty Bosstones), indie rock (Fugazi, Pavement, Neutral Milk Hotel, The Flaming Lips, Modest Mouse, Guided By Voices), jam bands (Dave Matthews Band, Phish), and nu metal (Korn, Limp Bizkit, Deftones) towards the end of the decade. Notable multi-styled singer-songwriters include Tori Amos, Alanis Morissette, Beck, Elliott Smith, Jeff Buckley, and Jewel. Radiohead's popularity exploded in 1997 with the release of OK Computer. Most notable, though, was the explosion of grunge band Nirvana into the mainstream, who found a large audience in the youths of the '90s through their apathetic attitude and their appeal to Generation X. Industrial music began to enter the mainstream in the form of industrial rock and the continuing development of the industrial dance music of the late 1980s. Ministry became one of the first industrial bands to gain large-scale commercial success with their 1991 single Jesus Built My Hotrod gaining massive radio and MTV airplay. The underground scene, too, was developing strongly with bands such as Chemlab and Non-Aggression Pact becoming heavily involved in what would become known as Rivethead culture. Hip hop music diversifies throughout the decade and experiences numerous trends, beginning with the commercial success of pop rappers MC Hammer, Tone Loc, Young MC, Marky Mark and the Funky Bunch, and Vanilla Ice. Other major developments include the proliferation of Alternative hip hop/jazz rap (De La Soul, Beastie Boys, Arrested Development, Digable Planets, Native Tongues, and A Tribe Called Quest) and the West Coast G-Funk/Gangsta Rap phenomena (Bone Thugs-N-Harmony, Cypress Hill, Dr. Dre, NWA, Snoop Doggy Dogg, Warren G, Coolio, and Tupac Shakur), followed by the resurgence of the New York hip hop scene (The Wu Tang Clan, Boot Camp Clik, Nas, Mobb Deep, and The Notorious B.I.G.), and pop rap (Puff Daddy and Will Smith). Teen pop and bubblegum pop returns in the 1990s in both the UK and the USA. British artists included the Spice Girls, Take That, Five, Steps, S Club 7 and Billie. US artists included Backstreet Boys, Hanson, Britney Spears and Christina Aguilera. Artists like Madonna and Janet Jackson continue to have success with their influential Dance-pop. Michael Jackson continues making arresting music and finds international popularity growing. "Black Or White" released in 1991, becomes a huge global hit, remaining at #1 in the US charts for 7 weeks. American Club/Dance music is very popular from 1990 to 1996, with acts like C&C Music Factory, Ce Ce Peniston, Crystal Waters, RuPaul, Black Box, & Dee-Lite. Similarly, Eurodance gains popularity in the United States, with many Eurodance artists scoring club hits on the Rhythmic Top 40 and Billboard Hot 100 radio. These artists include Technotronic, Corona, Cappella, N-Trance, Culture Beat,Reel 2 Real, Capital Sound, Jam & Spoon, E-Type, Maxx, La Bouche, Indra, Le Click, Pharao, Real McCoy, Ice MC,Me & My, JK, 2 Unlimited, Dr. Alban, Masterboy, Basic Element, AB Logic, Fun Factory, Mr. President, Shaman and Snap. The music festival Lollapalooza gained popularity similar to Woodstock; a fusing of genres from alternative rock, rap, punk rock and garage bands. Latin music becomes popular outside a Spanish-speaking audience with crossover hits by Ricky Martin, Jennifer Lopez,and Selena, the hit dance song Macarena and others. As Hispanic culture grows in the US, other Latin music genres took root, like Tejano music in the Southwestern United States is a mixed music genre: accordion based Mexican conjunto, Texan country, and modern pop merged to produce a new sound. Music becomes more profane, by end of decade a Parental Advisory sticker becomes acceptable rather than controversial. In America, country music becomes more mainstream with popular chart topping artist such as Garth Brooks, George Strait, Shania Twain, LeAnn Rimes, Sara Evans, Faith Hill, and Tim McGraw. The genre will also build up a more extensive audience world-wide, which sees the first English 24 hour terrestrial country station open in 1994. Popular hard rock bands maintain a strong presence into the 1990s. Guns N' Roses, Def Leppard, Ozzy Osbourne, and Van Halen were all still quite popular through the mid-1990s. Aerosmith and Bon Jovi's popularity and success spanned the entire decade and both were extremely popular at the turn of the new millennium. Music resumes its political content after the hiatus of the 1980s. Starting in 1996, the Tibetan Freedom Concert draws up to 120,000 people per year to a rock festival for the benefit of the cause of the International Tibet Independence Movement. Also, socially aware metal bands such as Rage Against the Machine and System of a Down form. Electronic music, becomes widely recognized at rave parties in Europe/USA and, later in the decade, in popular culture. The drug methylenedioxymethamphetamine, (also called Ecstasy or MDMA) is popularized by the burgeoning rave culture. Electronic music is highly popularized in mainstream culture later in the decade by The Prodigy, among other artists of the big beat genre. Whilst genres like House, Techno and Electro continue to be popular into the 1990s, new genres such as Trance, Drum & Bass and Garage become popular too. Trip hop, a downtempo electronic genre created in the 1990s, becomes popular in the United Kingdom, with artists such as Massive Attack, Portishead, Tricky, Björk and Morcheeba. 1980s backlash. During most of the 1990s, anything "Eighties" was considered to be ultimately uncool. As a result, people start wearing straighter hair, darker clothes and acoustic music becomes popular in opposition to the bright synthpop of the 1980s. The most noticeable 80s backlash being glam rock, hair metal and glam metal's sudden loss of popularity and eventual demise. Contemporary Christian Music continued to increase in popularity, with artists such as DC Talk, Jars of Clay, Amy Grant and Sixpence None the Richer all releasing platinum selling albums. Songs such as Baby Baby by Amy Grant, Flood by Jars of Clay, and Kiss Me by Sixpence None the Richer were all Top 40 hits, including Six Pence None the Richer's cover of "There She Goes" by The La's. Female R&B groups achieve great success in the 1990s with groups such as Salt n Pepa, En Vogue, TLC and All Saints.
[edit] Television
- See also: List of years in television#1990s
North America
A new wave of sitcoms known as "sitcoms about nothing" becomes immensely popular, showing characters which are regular people and episodes that show normal life situations altered into funny situations, thus losing contact with the "breaking the 4th wall" and "fish out of water" sitcoms regularly featured in the 80s. The two biggest examples of "sitcoms about nothing" being Seinfeld and Friends. Home Improvement (1991–1999) is also a very popular TV show that depicted an average American family's life set in suburban Detroit. The Simpsons (1989 – ) becomes popular with adult audiences, eventually paving the way for many adult-oriented animated television shows throughout the next 10 years, including Beavis and Butthead, South Park, Family Guy and King of the Hill. Professional wrestling became popular throughout the 1990s. In the late 1990s, the Monday Night Wars was the biggest impact for professional wrestling with the World Wrestling Federation (present day World Wrestling Entertainment), World Championship Wrestling, and Extreme Championship Wrestling. By the early 2000s, the WWF came out of the wars victorious over both WCW and ECW. Twin Peaks (1990 – 1991), David Lynch's surrealistic crime drama set in small town America (taking inspiration from his previous work, Blue Velvet), ran on ABC for two seasons, expanding the limits for prime time subject matter and quirky characters, and pushing TV producers and directors toward adapting a more cinematic filming style for television programming—an influence still visible in the 2000s. 20th Century Fox and BBC collaborate to produce the 1996 television movie of the science fiction series Doctor Who, starring Paul McGann as the Doctor. NASCAR Racing starts to become popular on TV nationally in the mid to late 1990s. Popular NASCAR drivers during this era are the late Dale Earnhardt, Rusty Wallace, Jeff Gordon, Mark Martin, Dale Jarrett, and Bobby Labonte. Pro Basketball sees high US TV ratings in the 1990s with stars like Shaq, Larry Bird, Magic Johnson, Michael Jordan, Karl Malone, Shawn Kemp, Reggie Miller, David Robinson, Penny Hardaway, Tim Duncan, and Patrick Ewing. US Saturday morning children's television programming, Like Fox Kids, reaches its peak popularity in the early and mid 1990s considered by many to be a "renaissance" in American animation. Everything from Animaniacs, Garfield and Friends, Eek! The Cat, X-Men, Batman: The Animated Series, The Tick, Freakazoid, and Tiny Toons, to television adaptations of popular video game characters Super Mario and Sonic the Hedgehog. The Disney experiences an animation renaissance with the popularity of The Disney Afternoon shows in the early and-mid-1990s, such as DuckTales, Darkwing Duck, Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers, TaleSpin, Gargoyles, Goof Troop, and the Mighty Ducks. Nickelodeon gains popularity with the Nicktoons block of shows, such as Doug, Rugrats, The Ren and Stimpy Show, Rocko's Modern Life, AAAHH!!! Real Monsters and Hey Arnold!.